Literature Review
Inventories taken by the National Reading Panel indicate that large numbers of students are able to decode text successfully but struggle to understand what they have read (Myers, 2005). Contemporary studies of reading support this concern, attesting to the complexity of reading comprehension. For example, research has shown that not only does word analysis, vocabulary development, and fluency influence reading comprehension (each complex in and of themselves), but prior knowledge, experience, and metacognition also influence a reader’s ability to comprehend a text (King, 1994). Reading instruction should, therefore, address not only decoding ability but also respond to reading as a dialogue between reader and text with many factors converging to make meaning (Myers, 2005). Construction of meaning through these multifaceted factors suggests that when learners infer, adjust, elaborate, or generate relationships using the new information and what they already know, they are better able to understand and remember what they read (King, 1994).
One way to encourage such reformulation of ideas is to teach the use of metacognitive questioning strategies. Questioning strategies cause readers to think more deeply about new information, stimulating thought process for problem solving and imaginative thinking (Williamson, 1996). Teacher-led questioning activities have been present in curriculum since the beginning of American education; new exploration using questioning shows that explicit instruction of self-questioning techniques can provide metacognitive focus for improved reading comprehension that authentically engages students in way that teacher-led questioning does not (Gauthier, 2000). A reformed approach to reading instruction should include explicit instruction of metacognitive reading strategies, like questioning, in authentic student-driven contexts.
Traditional Use of Questioning in Reading Instruction
Questions can provide academic focus and coherence for an entire curriculum (Gauthier, 2000); the imperative role of questions in the classroom has been proven by research, and of course, by time. Questioning in reading instruction has largely been approached as a series of questions meant to measure comprehension which are answered following reading (Durkin, 1978-1979). Commonly these questions are created by the teacher or taken from the basal reader (Lloyd, 2004). In the case of both the basal and teacher created questions, instructors often spend time creating and posing thoughtful higher order thinking questions only to find that the students are uninterested and unengaged in answering the queries (Lloyd, 2004). Many students read as passive recipients allowing the text to “wash over them” instead of making connections to the text or delving beyond surface level in support of their understanding; in short, passive readers answer questions the teacher created in the way the teacher thought they should (Zimmermann & Keene, 2007 . Lloyd, 2004). Furthermore, there is little instruction in the traditional format of a series of questions following reading selection. Educators using this traditional model are assessing their students’ understanding, but students are not being taught how to improve their reading comprehension by asking questions of their own (Durkin, 1978-1979).
Authentic Student Questions
In contrast to teacher driven questioning, incorporating student generated questions into literacy instruction addresses assessment needs of the teacher while increasing the motivation of students. Furthermore, authentic student-developed questions can enhance comprehension by “fostering a synthesis of concepts through practical application” and focus on main ideas (Gauthier, 2000). Student responsibility for questioning still provides the focus of guiding questions (Gauthier, 2000), but by generating and using self-questioning techniques the curriculum is enriched with beneficial comprehension instruction and increased student motivation (Durkin, 1978-1979. Lloyd, 2004). Through the process of asking authentic questions “literature discussions become more than an activity in which the reader is responsible for finding a specific predetermined meaning of the text. The questions invite students to interpret the text by illustrating the meaning and acknowledging the valuable insights each reader brings to the text.” (Lloyd, 2004)
Teachers and researchers investigating the use of authentic questioning used for comprehension instruction reported more attentive classes who thought more deeply about the text, using their questions and discussion to interpret, evaluate, and synthesize (Gauthier, 2000. Lloyd, 2004). Students reported that having control of the discussion was more challenging and interesting; many reflected that questioning promotes active reading. (Lloyd, 2004) Sharing questions in small groups and as a class also contributed improving student comprehension. Participating in questioning activities students generated questions, but also listened to other student questions and responses further expanding “the network of cognitive connections needed for understanding text” (Gauthier, 2000). Using authentic questions in the curriculum is a powerful tool for teaching reading comprehension, engaging students in literature discussions, along with assessing student creation of meaning from text.
Explicit Instruction of Metacognitive Strategies
Explicit instruction of comprehension strategies keeps the key features of literacy instruction such as read alouds, small group literature discussions, and reflective writing but shifts the control of these elements from the teacher to center around student thinking. Instead the comprehension strategy instruction uses the gradual release of responsibility model to beginning with the techniques that provides the most support moving towards independent practice (Lloyd, 2004. Zimmermann & Keene, 2007). To begin teachers start with reading aloud from an engaging text (Zimmermann & Keene, 2007). Read alouds have many benefits for students including building concepts of print, generating interest in literature, and aiding academic vocabulary development (Myers, 2005). In addition to these benefits educators can add the opportunity to introduce comprehension strategies by modeling through think alouds (Myers, 2005). For several lessons students observe teacher think alouds before practicing the strategies themselves first as a whole group then as a small group, and finally independently. The intention behind using the gradual release model is for students to turn these strategies into metacognitive reading skills (Afflerbach, 2008. Zimmermann & Keene, 2007).
As with any instruction method, this formula for gradual release instruction of comprehension strategies is not teacher or student proof solutions. Problems arise and the curriculum should shift in order to respond and improve student discussion. Research suggests that problems arising during instruction can be addressed by discussion and with student created solutions (Lloyd, 2004). For example, at the beginning of questioning instruction many student asked simple explicit questions emulating the years of basal or teacher-driven questions they were used to in traditional curriculum (Lloyd, 2004. Myers, 2005). To encourage students to delve deeper with their questions students should discuss the many types of questions learning to distinguish “thick” and “thin” questions looking to ask questions that are open ended and require critical thinking (Myers, 2005). In addition, it is important that students discuss the transition of questioning strategy to a reading comprehension skill, practiced independently (Afflerbach, 2008). Prolonged discussion and use of a single strategy can become “intrusive and cumbersome to the accomplished reader” (Lloyd, 2004). Strategy instruction was found to be most useful when individual strategies are not over used (Gauthier, 2000). Repeated practice is necessary to ensure mastery of strategies, but open discussion with students about this need for repetition along with self-assessment of their thinking can help instructors determine the pace of instruction (Lloyd, 2004).
Conclusion
Student-driven contexts for reading instruction provide authentic contexts that motivate students, increase their understanding of text, encourage active reading, assess and teach reading comprehension where historical models only assessed comprehension and propagated passive reading (Durkin, 1978-1979. Lloyd, 2004. King, 1994). Adding questioning strategies to students’ metacognitive tool box stimulates thought process for improved understanding, problem solving imaginative thinking (Williamson, 1996). Instruction of metacognitive comprehension strategies using gradual release of responsibility supports transition of a reading strategy to reading skill implemented independent for improved life long reading comprehension. This reformed method of reading instruction addresses the complexity of reading comprehension assisting the large numbers of students who are able to decode, but not understand what they have read (Myers, 2005).
Bibliography
Afflerbach, P., Pearson, P. D., & Paris, S. G. (2008). “Clarifying Differences Between Reading Skills and Reading Strategies”. The Reading Teacher, 61(5), 364-373.
Durkin, Dolores (1978-19879) “What Classroom Observations Reveal About Reading Comprehension Instruction”. Reading Research Quarterly,14(4), 481-533.
Gauthier, L. R. (2000). “The Role of Questioning: Beyond Comprehension’s Front Door”. Reading Horizons, 40(4), 239-252.
Lloyd, S. L. (2004). “Using Comprehension Strategies as a Springboard for Student Talk”. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 48(2), 114-124.
Myers, P. A. (2005). “The Princess Storyteller, Clara Clarifier, Quincy Questioner, and the Wizard: Reciprocal teaching adapted for kindergarten students”. International Reading Association, 314-324.
King, A. (1994). “Guiding knowledge construction in the classroom: Effects of teaching children how to question and how to explain”. American Educational Research Journal, 31(2), 338-368.
Zimmermann, S., & Keene, E. O. (2007). Mosaic of Thought: The Power of Comprehension Strategy Instruction (2nd ed.). Heinemann.
